Abdullah ibn Muhammad; January 11, 844 – October 15, 912) of the Umayyad dynasty was the seventh Emir of Córdoba, reigning from 888 to 912 in the Al-Andalus. Contemporary historians accused Abdullah of orchestrating the death of his elder brother, al-Mundhir, whereby he ascended to power. This is unlikely, as ibn Muhammad showed very little interest in governing, becoming a neurotic recluse who was only interested in hunting and his faith. Once in power, however, he showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat, even if they were family. Two of his own brothers were executed on his orders, and he commanded one of his sons (al-Mutarrif) to kill his own brother. Even this extreme display of loyalty was not enough to save al-Mutarrif, as he too was executed for treason a few years later. Abdullah is described as an apathetic emir. His government was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Córdoba, while the rest had been seized by rebel families that did not accept his authority. The most formidable threat for the emir was Umar Ibn Hafsun, who had conquered the provinces of Rayya, Bobastro, Elvira, Granada and Jaén, and had allied with the populations of Archidona Baeza, Ubeda and Priego.
In 891 Ibn Hafsun was defeated near the castle of Polei and lost several cities. After the victory, Abdullah massacred all the Christians, while the Muslims of the conquered cities were pardoned. However, by the following year Ibn Hafsun had already recovered, and conquered back all the lost territories.
In 899 Ibn Hafsun renounced Islam and became a Christian, being christened as Samuel. His motivations seem to have been opportunistic, hoping to obtain military support from Alfonso III of Leon, who had received overtures by ibn Hafsun on behalf of Ibn Marwan indifferently. His conversion proved a major political mistake which, although helping to attract significant Mozarab support, cost him the support of most of his Mullawad followers. He also built the Iglesia Mozarabe (Mozarab Church) at Bobastro.
In 901, the emir signed a peace agreement with Ibn Hafsun (who had allied with the Banu Qasi family, controlling the Ebro valley, and the Kingdom of Asturias).
In 901, the emir signed a peace agreement with Ibn Hafsun (who had allied with the Banu Qasi family, controlling the Ebro valley, and the Kingdom of Asturias).
The Sultan
Eugene Delacroix, 1845
Eugene Delacroix, 1845
However, the war broke out again the following year, only to be halted by the death of Abdullah at Córdoba, who was improving his positions. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Abdullah’s brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Abdullah’s father, who named as successor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Abdullah.
Tudmir
The land of Tudmir was much involved in the civil wars provoked by the rivalty of the Yamanis and the Mudaris of Spain in the period of the independent emirs of Cordoba. The same is happening in Spain. Around 891, many places of Muslim Spain were beginning to become quite as independent. The lords of Mentesa (Ibn Attaf), Medina Sidonia (Ibn Salim), Lorca (Ibn Waddah) and Saragossa (Al-Ancar) only obeyed the Emir when it suited them. The Berbers had reverted to a system of tribal government.
The renegades, however, maintained their position in Ocsonoba, in Beja and Mertola, and in Priego. The nobles in the province of Jaen were all in alliance with Omar ibn Hafsun. Another independent chief, Daisam ibn Ishaq was lord of almost the whole of Todmir (Murcia) and according to al-‘Udri one of the followers of Ibn Hafsun. He was also a lover of poetry, and had at his disposal an army in which were five thousand horsemen.
His generosity and urbanity earned him, moreover, the affection of all his subjects. He could do so since he controlled the silver mines in Todmir and had coined dirhems under his name. But the Sultan’s most formidable antagonist continued to be Ibn Hafsun, who in the last two years had gained great advantages. Even worse for the Sultan, Daisam of Lorca was allied to Omar ibn Hafsun.
Bobastro, beginning of the revolt of Omar ibn Hafsun
Photo: Andrzej Otrębski
Photo: Andrzej Otrębski
Roberto Marín-Guzmān let us know that «Daysam Ibn Ishâq was able to control a vast area including Murcia, Vélez Blanco and Vélez Rubio, as well as hisn Merna, and his Molina. Most of his territories were between the rivers Segura, Mula, ad Guadalentín. Daysam was a strong support for the rebels in several areas surrounding his territories. He was also portrayed as a popular and beloved leader due to his courage, mercy and generosity with his people. His palace was visited by numerous poets and intellectuals who were paid generously for their services and for the poems recited in his honor .»
In 895, it was generally supposed that an expedition was contemplated against the Renegades of Tudmir, However, instead of marching eastward, the army was approaching Seville. Though Sulaiman had managed to escape, all the other officers and men from Seville and Sidona had been arrested by the sultan’s son Mutarrif.
In the year 896 the amir ‘Abd Allah organized another sa’ifa, that has been recorded in the chronicles as Sa’ifa Tudmir. The expedition had as mission to punish the rebels in this kura. One of the major objectives was to subdue the rebels Daysam Ibn Ishâq, Ibn Hudhayl, and other in the area. One of the reasons for attacking the kura of Tudmir could have been his desire to acquire the silver and control of the silver mines that the rebel Ibn Ishaq had under his dominion. The government of the amir ‘Abd Allah had a need for precious metals, and in this way they could stop Ibn Ishaq from minting his own coins. The army went to Vélez as the first place in Tudmir that needed a punishment. Thereafter the Umayyad armies advanced to other fortresses in the kura of Tudmir. The army continued his punishment with the fortress of Mania, on de banks of the Wadi Tadrua river (Segura). This fortress was under the control of Daysam. The Umayyad armies regained the fortress of Mania, but were unable to obtain Daysam’s surrender. This leader found silver mines in his province and minted his own silver dirhams with his own name on them. This allowed him to reach an economic independence and self sustaining for his cause. Thereafter, the Umayyad armies continued his punishment with the castle of Rikut (Ricote) that was controlled by Ibn Ishâq .
Ricote
According to Puy Meason the earliest true reference to Ricote appears in the year 896 as follows:
In 895, it was generally supposed that an expedition was contemplated against the Renegades of Tudmir, However, instead of marching eastward, the army was approaching Seville. Though Sulaiman had managed to escape, all the other officers and men from Seville and Sidona had been arrested by the sultan’s son Mutarrif.
In the year 896 the amir ‘Abd Allah organized another sa’ifa, that has been recorded in the chronicles as Sa’ifa Tudmir. The expedition had as mission to punish the rebels in this kura. One of the major objectives was to subdue the rebels Daysam Ibn Ishâq, Ibn Hudhayl, and other in the area. One of the reasons for attacking the kura of Tudmir could have been his desire to acquire the silver and control of the silver mines that the rebel Ibn Ishaq had under his dominion. The government of the amir ‘Abd Allah had a need for precious metals, and in this way they could stop Ibn Ishaq from minting his own coins. The army went to Vélez as the first place in Tudmir that needed a punishment. Thereafter the Umayyad armies advanced to other fortresses in the kura of Tudmir. The army continued his punishment with the fortress of Mania, on de banks of the Wadi Tadrua river (Segura). This fortress was under the control of Daysam. The Umayyad armies regained the fortress of Mania, but were unable to obtain Daysam’s surrender. This leader found silver mines in his province and minted his own silver dirhams with his own name on them. This allowed him to reach an economic independence and self sustaining for his cause. Thereafter, the Umayyad armies continued his punishment with the castle of Rikut (Ricote) that was controlled by Ibn Ishâq .
Ricote
According to Puy Meason the earliest true reference to Ricote appears in the year 896 as follows:
We find the earliest written reference to the occupation of the region in Ibn Hayyān’s Muqtabis III (10-11th centuries), where Ricote is mentioned in the context of the expedition sent by the emir of Cordoba in 896 AD in order to stifle a rebellion . A group of insurgents had sought refuge in Ricote’s fortress located on a hill to the northeast of the village. Later al-Bakrī (11th century), quoting al-Rāzī (10th century) alluded to the alquería of Ricote. Alquería is a word used in al-Andalus to refer to a small rural residential nucleus and its associated farmland. The alquería of Ricote was probably located on a hill to the north of the current village, where 11th - 13th-century pottery fragments have been found . The survey carried out for this thesis has identified another Andalusi residential nucleus in Cabezo del Rife, to the southeast of the modern day village, where pottery dating to the 9th-13th centuries has been identified.
Elías Terés Sábada describes the chronicle of Ibn Hayyān more extensively:
In the year 283 (= 896) an army sent by Emir 'Abd Allah camped in Balis (= Velez), located on the top of the Tudmir, and from there it went to continue attacking the castles of this region obliterating all the rebellious villages on their way, till they camped before Maniya [to be read mulina = Molina, as J. Vallvé thinks], which was one of the castles of the rebel Daysam ibn Ishaq, located on Wadi Tādirü. The army continued there for several days ravaging and burning everything until they attacked the hisn or castle of Riküt; (= Ricote) where the garrison resisted, but the Emir’s army snatched the first protection wall or citadel, forcing them to take refuge in the fortress. Thereafter the army started to plunder and when some of this army returned to their camp with what they had caught, the people of the castle took this opportunity to lash out against them, but the army inflicted a terrible defeat throwing them against the river. Some of their leaders were killed and others drowned, among them the two sons of 'Umar ibn Di-n Nun as-Santarï [read as-Santabarï' that one of Santaver '] and Gazi ibn Gazwān at-Talabarï.
Ricote probably had a pre-Arab etymology. With reference to the ancient Arab texts Guichard and Carmona speak about Rikût and Riqût. However, seventeen years later Prof. Carmona talks about the name Ruqût, as observed by Jorge Eiroa.
Prof. Alfonso Carmona González
At the beginning of the 20th century Gaspar Remiro already wrote in detail about the Umayyad army and here we observe the first reference to the village of Ricote.
Campaign Todmir
We find the best description of what exactly happened in Ricote in 896 in the book of Mariano Gaspar Remiro :
Campaign Todmir
We find the best description of what exactly happened in Ricote in 896 in the book of Mariano Gaspar Remiro :
"The Umayyad army attacked the castles of Guadix and proceeded to the fortification of Huéneja (Wãniÿa), where it stayed for a few days until the mules arrived with supplies from Pechina and the diezmos and taxes of the Alpujarras (?). After several days of bad weather the army started to walk again and camped at the Ragašãna castle of Tíjola. It undertook to march again towards Baza on the 1st Jumada II/16th July 896. The weather got worse, while the Umayyad forces led by Hisham b. ‘Abd al-Rahman b. Al-Hakam and the general Ahmad b. Muhammad Ibn Abi ‘Abda moved to Velez Rubio and Velez Blanco (Balis), where the Cora of Tudmir begins. On the first Christian day of the month of August after two days of fighting around the castle the Umayyad troops dedicated to ravage the territory of Tudmir and camped at Molina (!) - one of the fortifications (Husun) of the rebel Daysam b. Ishaq near the river Tader or Segura. The river Segura was called Tader in the Latin sources and in the Arabic ones it had the name of Tâdiru, Tandâ’ir, nahr Tudmîr (“river of Tudmîr”), nahr Mursiya (“river of Murcia”) and al-Nahr al-Abyad (“the white river”) . Daysum Ibn Ishaq was the lord of Murcia during 888-906.
After ravaging the area for several days Sultan Ahmed marched against Ricote, whose defenders were ready to fight and managed to boldly reject the enemy's attacks at the beginning. However, there came a moment when the Sultan's army volunteers mastered the castle’s first enclosure and adhered to the walls of the citadel. But these volunteers, coming and going from the castle to camp with their prey, were more attentive to plunder than to dislodging their enemies. The besieged ones, taking advantage of the favourable opportunity of such proceeding, could furiously fight the other group of the army and to put them in shameful defeat. Many of them jumped into the river in escape, and this resulted in many deaths, many by armies and others by drowning. Notable among them were two sons of Omar, son of Dinnun from Santover; Gaz, son Gazuan from Talavera, and others. The Sultan's army immediately withdrew to the city of Murcia where they camped on the banks of the Segura ten days to engage in the collection of taxes of al-Jazeera and al-'Askar and other faithful districts. On Sunday the first of raÿab/14 August 896 the army undertook the return passing through Ayn saytan (Source devil) and the Castle of Aledo, where they encamped at Sundown. There was no water on this road and over thirty soldiers and many pack animals died during the walk. The caid general Ahmad b. Muhammad Ibn Abi ‘Abda ordered his emissaries to go to the town of Lorca Daysam to warn his intention to camp on their territory .....”
Daysam was defeated between Aledo and Lorca and the latter town was besieged. The country was definitely pacified and restored to the central power in Cordova only during the reign of the caliph ‘Abd al-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam II.
According to Ortega López it is quite well possible that in 896 a castle of Ricote was situated where today we find the site of the Moorish Queen (Pila de la Reina Mora). This place is also known as Castle of Ojos or Castle of Ulea, high on the cliff, overlooking the current grindstone of the population of Ulea, an authentic natural stronghold .
With regards to Blanca, according to André Bazzana we know that near the future castle (12th century) there was an existing alcabar in the 10th and 11th century.
Daysam was defeated between Aledo and Lorca and the latter town was besieged. The country was definitely pacified and restored to the central power in Cordova only during the reign of the caliph ‘Abd al-Rahman III and his successor al-Hakam II.
According to Ortega López it is quite well possible that in 896 a castle of Ricote was situated where today we find the site of the Moorish Queen (Pila de la Reina Mora). This place is also known as Castle of Ojos or Castle of Ulea, high on the cliff, overlooking the current grindstone of the population of Ulea, an authentic natural stronghold .
With regards to Blanca, according to André Bazzana we know that near the future castle (12th century) there was an existing alcabar in the 10th and 11th century.
The new castle in Ricote
According to the hypothesis of Ortega López, after the defeat by the Umayyad army the Muslims of the Ricote Valley who were living in the castle near Ojós decided to build a new castle high in the mountains near a place that is today called Ricote. However, Ortega López and his defender Ríos Martínez’s hypothesis is not accepted by Eiroa Rodríguez, who stated:
Dimas Ortega surprisingly proposes placing the Rikut of Ibn Hayyán ub in the late Roman settlement of the “El Salto de la Novia”; he not only confuses this known settlement of the IV and V centuries with the Andalusian fortress located on it, the site of the “Pila de la Reina Mora” or Ulea castle, but he uses a personal interpretation of the text of the campaign of Tudmir of the IX century to conclude that "the sources described therefore ensure that Rikut was in the valley and not in the remote heights of the crags", since the orography there "prevents the location of nearby camps" even talking about "the Roman city of Rikut" (Ortega, 2002). And recently Rios has recovered Ortega’s argument, considering that previous references to the XI century of Ricote refer to the place now known as "el Salto de la Novia". Only thereafter “would Ricote be at the current location, because the security offered by this situation on top of the mountain was until then one of a small fort" (Rios, 2007: 183). He states that "it is evidenced by the archaeological remains and Arab sources" without citing any specific reference.
According to the hypothesis of Ortega López, after the defeat by the Umayyad army the Muslims of the Ricote Valley who were living in the castle near Ojós decided to build a new castle high in the mountains near a place that is today called Ricote. However, Ortega López and his defender Ríos Martínez’s hypothesis is not accepted by Eiroa Rodríguez, who stated:
Dimas Ortega surprisingly proposes placing the Rikut of Ibn Hayyán ub in the late Roman settlement of the “El Salto de la Novia”; he not only confuses this known settlement of the IV and V centuries with the Andalusian fortress located on it, the site of the “Pila de la Reina Mora” or Ulea castle, but he uses a personal interpretation of the text of the campaign of Tudmir of the IX century to conclude that "the sources described therefore ensure that Rikut was in the valley and not in the remote heights of the crags", since the orography there "prevents the location of nearby camps" even talking about "the Roman city of Rikut" (Ortega, 2002). And recently Rios has recovered Ortega’s argument, considering that previous references to the XI century of Ricote refer to the place now known as "el Salto de la Novia". Only thereafter “would Ricote be at the current location, because the security offered by this situation on top of the mountain was until then one of a small fort" (Rios, 2007: 183). He states that "it is evidenced by the archaeological remains and Arab sources" without citing any specific reference.
Remainders of the Castle of Ricote
Strangely enough, a study of Puy Maeso suggests that the Andalusi irrigated terraced cluster of Ricote was likely constructed between the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 13th centuries AD.
Strangely enough, a study of Puy Maeso suggests that the Andalusi irrigated terraced cluster of Ricote was likely constructed between the end of the 10th and the beginning of the 13th centuries AD.
André Bazzana
An alcabar is a space surrounded by a fence that can be found within the castle grounds or sometimes on the outside, but near the fort. It is a fold to guard livestock or a refuge for the inhabitants.
Udri informs that in those years silver mines near the coast of Tudmir produced 15 kilos of metallic silver per day. This metal was used in jewelry, decoration, crockery, and also to mint money by the rebels.
After the death of Daisum Ibn Ishaq in 906 Lorca was governed for a short time by his two sons and thereafter only by one of them. Then Abd al-Rahman ibn Waddah appeared as governor until the year 924.
Ibrahim Ben Mūsā Ben Chamil was a celebrated personage in Murcia who moved from Murcia to the East, residing in Egypt, Mecca, and Baghdad, finally turning to Egypt where he died circa 912.
Oran
The city of Oran took was founded in 903 by a group of sailors and Andalusian Muslims, partially from merchants of Tudmir. Murcia as the capital of Tudmir was the new established town that from that time had for a long time closer contacts with the emirate of Tlemcen through the Cartagena-Mazalquivir combination.
Orihuela
The son of qadi Abd Rahman (d. 841-842) by the name of Asorah Abulosna was a native of Murcia. He travelled to various cities of Spain and then went to Egypt to finalize his studies, dying at the age of 105 years (d. 907 to 908). Qadi Fadl (d. 878-879) had two sons: Amira and Abd Rahman, both native to Orihuela. Having studied law with their father, both travelled to the East to fulfill the religious precept of the pilgrimage and perfect their education. The first died in 897 to 898 and the second was surprised by death on the road while returning from the pilgrimage in 906 to 907.
Khaalid, son of Almotain, surnamed Aburazin, appeared as qadi of Todmir after Abd Rahman, son of Fadl, and before his brother. He was a native of Elvira and had exercised the same position before. Some of the jurists from Todmir moved to the East and established their residences there devoting themselves to studies and teaching. This was the case of Ybrahim Abuishac, son of Muza, who lived in Egypt, Mecca, and Baghdad and later returned to the firstly referred region, where he died in 912 to 913 .
In 909-910 Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Malik al-Tawil reached the wastelands of Balyâris and conquered the fortress of Orihuela. He captured three hundred Christians, killed many, and destroyed and burned the fort. Then he advanced against the strengths of Galtayr and al-Gîrân and destroyed them. The booty from this expedition was thirteen thousand dinars .
Lorca
The Arab geographer al-Yaqûbi wrote his book Kitāb al-buldān around 890. His death dates to 897. Kitāb al-buldān is the first Arab geographical work that refers to the territory of al-Andalus. He describes al-Andalus from the narration of a past traveler from North Africa.
"Leave Qairawan towards Tunisia. There embark and travel by sea for ten days, following the coast without penetrating inland until you are in front of the peninsula of al-Andalus in a place called Tenes which is on the coast four days away from the city of Tahert. Then go towards the peninsula of al-Andalus through the sea for a day and a night until you reach the country of Tudmir - a large inhabited region in which there are two cities called Alaskar and Lorca, both with their mosques. Then go towards ... Córdoba ... (through) ... Elbira ...“
After the death of Daisum Ibn Ishaq in 906 Lorca was governed for a short time by his two sons and thereafter only by one of them. Then Abd al-Rahman ibn Waddah appeared as governor until the year 924.
Ibrahim Ben Mūsā Ben Chamil was a celebrated personage in Murcia who moved from Murcia to the East, residing in Egypt, Mecca, and Baghdad, finally turning to Egypt where he died circa 912.
Oran
The city of Oran took was founded in 903 by a group of sailors and Andalusian Muslims, partially from merchants of Tudmir. Murcia as the capital of Tudmir was the new established town that from that time had for a long time closer contacts with the emirate of Tlemcen through the Cartagena-Mazalquivir combination.
Orihuela
The son of qadi Abd Rahman (d. 841-842) by the name of Asorah Abulosna was a native of Murcia. He travelled to various cities of Spain and then went to Egypt to finalize his studies, dying at the age of 105 years (d. 907 to 908). Qadi Fadl (d. 878-879) had two sons: Amira and Abd Rahman, both native to Orihuela. Having studied law with their father, both travelled to the East to fulfill the religious precept of the pilgrimage and perfect their education. The first died in 897 to 898 and the second was surprised by death on the road while returning from the pilgrimage in 906 to 907.
Khaalid, son of Almotain, surnamed Aburazin, appeared as qadi of Todmir after Abd Rahman, son of Fadl, and before his brother. He was a native of Elvira and had exercised the same position before. Some of the jurists from Todmir moved to the East and established their residences there devoting themselves to studies and teaching. This was the case of Ybrahim Abuishac, son of Muza, who lived in Egypt, Mecca, and Baghdad and later returned to the firstly referred region, where he died in 912 to 913 .
In 909-910 Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Malik al-Tawil reached the wastelands of Balyâris and conquered the fortress of Orihuela. He captured three hundred Christians, killed many, and destroyed and burned the fort. Then he advanced against the strengths of Galtayr and al-Gîrân and destroyed them. The booty from this expedition was thirteen thousand dinars .
Lorca
The Arab geographer al-Yaqûbi wrote his book Kitāb al-buldān around 890. His death dates to 897. Kitāb al-buldān is the first Arab geographical work that refers to the territory of al-Andalus. He describes al-Andalus from the narration of a past traveler from North Africa.
"Leave Qairawan towards Tunisia. There embark and travel by sea for ten days, following the coast without penetrating inland until you are in front of the peninsula of al-Andalus in a place called Tenes which is on the coast four days away from the city of Tahert. Then go towards the peninsula of al-Andalus through the sea for a day and a night until you reach the country of Tudmir - a large inhabited region in which there are two cities called Alaskar and Lorca, both with their mosques. Then go towards ... Córdoba ... (through) ... Elbira ...“
0 comentarios:
Publicar un comentario