When we come to the year 672 a noble Goth named Wamba ascended the Spanish throne. It was in his reign that the Moors or Arabs of Mauritania first began to harass the Spanish coasts. The Chronicle of 754 records the Moors of North Africa had long raided the shores of the kingdom before the invasion. The later Chronicle of Alfonso III noted that the Muslims were a formidable enemy attempting to land in his dominions. Wamba assembled a great naval force in 672-73, attacked their fleet, and after a desperate engagement, defeated them, taking a vast number of prisoners, and it is said, no fewer than two hundred and seventy vessels of all sizes. This was the first collision between the Moors and the Visigoths. In this case, the Moors had been invited by Jewish shipping interests, out of fear that Wamba would persecute them. As we have seen Wamba defeated the Moorish fleet, and the Moors returned to raiding. They returned in force some years later, again under Jewish invitation. Again, the Visigoths repulsed the attack, but later events would bring them back, and this time to stay.
Several favourable incursions by the Arabs strengthened Mūsā Ibn Nusayr in his intention of invading Andalus; to this effect he called a freed slave of his, to whom he had on different occasions intrusted important commands in his armies, and whose name was Ṭāriq Ibn Ziyād Ibn ’Abdillah, a native of Hamadān, in Persia, although some pretend that he was not a free-man of Mūsā Ibn Nusayr, but a free-born man of the tribe of Sadf, while others make him a mauli of Lahm. It is even asserted that some of his posterity who lived in Andalus rejected with indignation the supposition of their ancestor having ever been a liberated slave of Mūsā Ibn Nusayr. Some authors, and they are the greatest number, say that he was a Berber, but, as we intend to form a separate article about Ṭāriq, we shall leave the discussion of this and other points for another place, confining ourselves at present to the relation of the historical events as we find them recorded by the best Andalusian writers. To this Ṭāriq, therefore, whether a liberated slave of Mūsā, or a freeman of the tribe of Sadf, the Arabian govemor of Africa committed the important trust of conquering the kingdom of Andalus, for which end he gave him the command of an army of seven thousand men, chiefly Berbers and slaves, very few only being genuine Arabs.
To accompany and guide Ṭāriq in this expedition Mūsā again sent Ilyān, who provided four vessels from the ports under his command, the only places on the coast where vessels were at that time built. Everything being got ready, a division of the army crossed that arm of the sea which divides Andalus from Africa, and landed with Ṭāriq at the foot of the mountain which afterwards received his name, on a Saturday, in the month of Sha’bān of the year ninety-two (July, 711), answering to the month of Agosht (August), and the four vessels were sent back, and crossed and recrossed until the rest of Ṭāriq’s men were safely put on shore. It is otherwise said that Ṭāriq landed on the twenty-fourth of Rejeb (l9th June, 71l), in the same year. Another account makes the number of men embarked on this occasion amount to twelve thousand, all but sixteen, a number consisting almost entirely of Berbers, there being but few Arabs amongst them; but the same writer agrees that Ilyān transported this force at various times to the coast of Andalus in merchant vessels, (whence collected it is not known,) and that Ṭāriq was the last man on board.
Various historians have recorded two circumstances concerning Ṭāriq’s passage and his landing on the coast of Andalus, which we consider worthy of being transcribed. They say that while he was sailing across that arm of the sea which separates Africa from Andalus he saw in a dream the prophet Mohammed, surrounded by Arabs of the Muhajirín and Anssār, who with unsheathed swords and bended bows stood close by him, and that he heard the Prophet say, “Take“ courage, O Ṭāriq! and accomplish what thou art destined to perform;” and that having looked round him he saw the messenger of God, (upon whom be the peace and salutation of his Lord!) who with his companions was entering Andalus. Ṭāriq then awoke from his sleep, and, delighted with this good omen, hastened to communicate the miraculous circumstance to his followers, who were much pleased and strengthened. Ṭāriq himself was so much struck by the apparition that from that moment he never doubted of victory. The same writers have preserved another anecdote, which sufliciently proves the mediation of the Almighty in permitting that the conquest of Andalus should be achieved by Ṭāriq. Directly after his landing on the rock Mūsā’s freedman brought his forces upon the plain, and began to overrun and lay waste the neighbouring country. While he was thus employed, an old woman from Algesiras presented herself to him, and among other things told him what follows: “ Thou“ must know, O stranger! that I had once a husband who had the knowledge of future events; and I have repeatedly heard him say to the people of this country that a foreign general would come to this island and subject it to his arms. He described him to me as a man of prominent forehead, and such, I see, is thine; he told me also that the individual designated by the prophecy would have a black mole covered with hair on his left shoulder. Now, if thou hast such a mark on thy body, thou art undoubtedly the person intended.” When Ṭāriq heard the old woman’s reasoning, he immediately laid his shoulder hare, and the mark being found, as predicted, upon the let one, both he and his companions were filled with delight at the good omen.
Walis (Governors) of Al-Andalus
711-714 Musa ibn Nusary
714-716 Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa
716 Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lajmi
716-719 al-Hurr ibn al-Rahman al-Thaqafi
719-721 As-Samh ibn Malik
721 Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Gafiqi
721-726 Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi
726-729 Yahya ibn Salama al-Kalbi
729 Hudayfa ibn al-Ahwas al-Qaysi
729-730 Utman ibn Abu Nisa al-Jathami
730-731 al-Haytham ibn Ubayd al-Kilabi
731 Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-Ashshai
732-732 Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-gafiqi
732-734 Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan al-Fihri
734-741 Ubaq ibn al-Hashshaash al-Saluli
741 Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan al-Fihri
741-743 Balsh ibn Bisr al-Qushayri
742-743 Tha´laba ibn Salama al-Amili
743-745 Abu al-Jattar al-Husam ibn Darar al-Kalbi
745-746 Tawaba ibn Salama al-Gudami
746-756 Yusuf ibn al-Rahman al-Fihri
Ibnu Hayyān’s account does not materially differ from those of the historians from whom we have quoted. He agrrees in saying that Ilyān, Lord of Ceuta, incited Mūsā Ibn Nusayr to make the conquest of Andalus; and that this he did out of revenge, and moved by the personal enmity and hatred he had conceived against Roderic. He makes Ṭāriq’s army amount only to seven thousand, mostly Berbers, which, he says, crossed in four vessels provided by Ilyān. According to his account Ṭāriq landed on a Saturday, in the month of Sha’bān of the year ninety- two, and the vessels that brought him and his men on shore were immediately sent back to Africa, and never ceased going backwards and forwards until the whole of the army was safely landed on the shores of Andalus. On the other side, Ibnu Khaldūn reckons the army under the orders of Ṭāriq at three hundred Arabs, and ten thousand Berbers. He says that before starting on his expedition Ṭāriq divided his army into two corps, he himself taking the command of one, and placing the other under the immediate orders of Tarif An-naja’í. Ṭāriq, with his men, landed at the foot of the rock now called Jebalu-l-fatah (the mountain of the entrance), and which then received his name, and was called Jebal-Ṭāriq (the mountain of Ṭāriq); while his companion Taríf landed on the island afterwards called after him Jezírah-Taríf (the island of Taríf). In order to provide for the security of their respective armies, both generals selected, soon after their landing, a good encampment, which they surrounded with walls and trenches, for no sooner had the news of their landing spread than the armies of the Goths began to march against them from all quarters. The precise date of Ṭāriq’s invasion has been differently stated. Some historians, as Ibnu Khaldūn, content themselves with giving the year, viz., ninety-two (beginning 28th October, 710); others have fixed the month and the day in which this memorable event is supposed to have taken place. Ibnu-l-khattíb places it on Monday, five days before the end of Rejeb (25th Rejeb) of the year ninety-two (20th June, 711); Ibnu Hayyān on a Saturday of the month of Sha’bān: others say on the twenty-fourth of Rejeb; Adh-dhobí on the eighth day of the same month. There are not wanting authors who place it at the beginning of the year ninety-three; but those who fix it in ninety-two are most in number. God only knows the truth of the case. But, to continue our narrative, no sooner did Ṭāriq set his foot in Andalus than he was attacked by a Goth named Tudmír (Theodomir), to whom Roderic had intrusted the defence of that frontier. Theodomir, who is the same general who afterwards gave his name to a province of Andalus, called Belād Tuddmír (the country of Theodomir), having tried, although in vain,to stop the impetuous career of Ṭāriq’s men, dispatched immediately a messenger to his master, apprising him how Ṭāriq and his followers had landed in Andalus. He also wrote him a letter, thus conceived:— “This our land has been invaded by people whose name, country, and origin are unknown to me. I cannot even tell thee whence they came,-whether they fell from the skies, or sprang from the earth.”
When this news reached Roderic, who was then in the country of the Bashkans (Basques), making war in the territory of Banbilónah (Pamplona), where serious disturbances had occurred, he guessed directly that the blow came from Ilyān. Sensible; however, of the importance of this attack made upon his dominions, he left what he had in hand, and, moving towards the south with the whole of his powerful army, arrived in Cordova, which is placed in the centre of Andalus. There he took up his abode in the royal castle, which the Arabs called after him Roderic’s Castle. In this palace Roderic took up his residence for a few days, to await the arrival of the numerous troops which he had summoned from the different provinces of his kingdom. They say that while he was staying in Cordova he wrote to the sons of Wittiza to come and join him against the common enemy; for although it is true, as we have already related, that Roderic had usurped the throne of their father and persecuted the sons, yet he had spared their lives;—since these two sons of Wittiza are the same who, when Ṭāriq attacked the forces of King Roderic on the plains of Guadalete, near the sea, turned back and deserted their ranks, owing to a promise made them by Ṭāriq to restore them to the throne of their father if they helped him against Roderic. However, when Roderic arrived in Cordova, the sons of Wittiza were busily engaged in some distant province collecting troops to march against the invaders, and he wrote to them to come and join him with their forces, in order to march together against the Arabs; and, cautioning them against the inconvenience and danger of private feuds at that moment, engaged them to join him and attack the Arabs in one mass.
The sons of Wittiza readily agreed to Roderic’s proposition, and collecting all their forces came to meet him, and encamped not far from the village of Shakandah, on the opposite side of the river, and on the south of the palace of Cordova. There they remained for some time, not daring to enter the capital or to trust Roderic, until at last, having ascertained the truth of the preparations, and seeing the army march out of the city and him with it, they entered Cordova, united their forces to his, and marched with him against the enemy, although, as will be seen presently, they were already planning the treachery which they afterwards committed. Others say that the sons of Wittiza did not obey the summons sent them by the usurper Roderic; on the contrary, that they joined Ṭāriq with all their forces: but which of these reports is the true one God only knows. However, it seems to have been ascertained that all the princes of the Goths came to join Roderic in this expedition, although it is equally true that he was deserted by some of his noblemen on the field of battle. But much obscurity prevails in the writings of the historians who have recorded the events of those early times. Even the name of the Gothic monarch at the time of Ṭāriq’s invasion has been spelt in different ways, for we find it written thus,- Rudheric, and Ludheric; although the latter is more commonly used. It is also stated that he was a descendant from Isbahān (Hispan); but this is contrary to the accounts of Ibnu Hayyān and others, who say that he was not of royal blood.
The Battle of Guadalete
Painting of Salvador Martínez Cubells (1845–1914)
When Ṭāriq received the news of the approach of Roderic’s army, which is said to have amounted to nearly one hundred thousand men, provided with all kinds of weapons and military stores, he wrote to Mūsā for assistance, saying that he had taken Algesiras, a port of Andalus, thus becoming by its possession the master of the passage into that country; that he had subdued its districts as far as the bay; but that Roderic was now advancing against him with a force which it was not in his power to resist, except it was God Almighty’s will that it should be so. Mūsā, who since Ṭāriq’s departure for this expedition had been employed in building ships, and had by this time collected a great many, sent by them a reinforcement of five thousand Moslems, which, added to the seven thousand of the first expedition, made the whole forces amount to twelve thousand men, eager for plunder and anxious for battle. Ilyān, Lord of Ceuta, who had become a tributary of the Moslems, was also sent with his army and the people of his states to accompany this expedition, and to guide it through the passes in the country, and gather intelligence for them. In the meanwhile Roderic was drawing nearer to the Moslems, with all the forces of the barbarians, their lords, their knights, and their bishops; but the hearts of the great people of the kingdom being against him, they used to see each other frequently, and in their private conversations they uttered their sentiments about Roderic in the following manner: “This wretch has by force taken possession of the throne to which he is not justly entitled, for not only he does not belong to the royal family, but he was once one of our meanest menials; we do not know how far he may carry his wicked intentions against us. There is no doubt but that Ṭāriq’s followers do not intend to settle in this country; their only wish is to fill their hands with spoil and then return. Let us then, as soon as the battle is engaged, give way, and leave the usurper alone to fight the strangers, who will soon deliver us from him; and, when they shall be gone, we can place on the throne him who most deserves it.” In these sentiments all agreed, and it was decided that the proposed plan should be put into execution; the two sons of Wittiza, whom Roderic had appointed to the command of the right and left wings of his army, being at the head of the conspiracy, in the hope of gaining the throne of their father. When the armies drew nearer to each other, the princes began to spin the web of their treason; and for this purpose a messenger was sent by them to Ṭāriq, informing him how Roderic, who had been a mere menial and servant to their father, had, after his death, usurped the throne; that the princes had by no means relinquished their rights, and that they implored protection and security for themselves. They offered to desert, and pass over to Ṭāriq with the troops under their command, on condition that the Arab general would, after subduing the whole of Andalus, secure to them all their father’s possessions, amounting to three thousand valuable and chosen farms, the same that received after this the name of Safāyā-l-molūk (the royal portion).
The afternoon prayer
Picture of F. Roubaud
This offer Ṭāriq accepted; and, having agreed to the conditions, on the next day the sons of Wittiza deserted the ranks of the Gothic army in the midst of battle, and passed over to Ṭāriq, this being no doubt one of the principal causes of the conquest. Roderic arrived on the banks of the Guadalete (Wādí-Lek) with a formidable army, which most historians compute at one hundred thousand, although Ibnu Khaldūn makes it amount to forty thousand men only. Roderic brought all his treasures and military stores in carts: he himself came in a litter, placed between two mules, having over his head an awning richly set with pearls, rubies, and emeralds. On the approach of this formidable tempest the Moslems did not lose courage, but prepared to meet their adversary. Ṭāriq assembled his men, comforted them by his words, and after rendering the due praises to the Almighty God, and returning thanks for what had already been accomplished, proceeded to implore his mighty help for the future. He then encouraged the Moslems, and kindled their enthusiasm with the following address.—“ Whether can you fly,—the enemy is in your front, the sea at your back? By Allah! there is no salvation for you but in your courage and perseverances. Consider your situation;—here you are on this island like so many orphans cast upon the world; you will soon be met by a powerful enemy, surrounding you on all sides like the infuriated billows of a tempestuous sea, and sending against you his countless warriors, drowned in steel, and provided with every store and description of arms. What can you oppose to them? You have no other weapons than your swords, no provisions but those that you may snatch from the hands of your enemies; you must therefore attack them immediately, or otherwise your wants will increase, the gales of victory may no longer blow in your favour, and perchance the fear that lurks in the hearts of your enemies may be changed into indomitable courage. Banish all fear from your hearts, trust that victory shall be ours, and that the baibarian king will not be able to withstand the shock of our arms. Here he comes to make us the masters of his cities and castles, and to deliver into our hands his countless treasures; and if you only seize the opportunity now presented, it may perhaps be the means of your becoming the owners of them, besides saving yourselves from certain death. Do not think that I impose upon you a task from which I shrink myself, or that I try to conceal from you the dangers attending this expedition. No: you have certainly a great deal to encounter, but know that if you only suffer for awhile, you will reap in the end an abundant harvest of pleasures and enjoyments. And do not imagine that while I speak to you I mean not to act as I speak, for as my interest in this atfair is greater, so will my behaviour on this occasion surpass yours. You must have heard numerous accounts of this island, you must know how the Grecian maidens, as handsome as Huris, their necks glittering with innumerable pearls and jewels, their bodies clothed with tunics of costly silks sprinkled with gold, are waiting your arrival, reclining on soft couches in the sumptuous palaces of crowned lords and princes. You know well that the Khalif ’Abdu-l-malek Ibnu-l-walíd has chosen you, like so many heroes, from among the brave; you know that the great lords of this island are willing to make you their sons and brethren by marriage, if you only rush on like so many brave men to the fight, and behave like true champions and valiant knights; you know that the recompenses of God await you if you are prepared to uphold his words, and proclaim his religion in this island; and, lastly, that all the spoil shall be yours, and of such Moslems as may be with you. Bear in mind that God Almighty will select, according to this promise, those that distinguish themselves most among you, and grant them due reward, both in this world and in the future; and know likewise that I shall be the first to set you the example, and to put in practice what I recommend you to do; for it is my intention, on the meeting of the two hosts, to attack the Christian tyrant Roderic and kill him with my own hand, if God be pleased. When you see me bearing against him, charge along with me; if I kill him, the Victory is ours; if I am killed before I reach him, do not trouble yourselves about me, but fight as if I were still alive and among you, and follow up my purpose; for the moment they see their king fall, these barbarians are sure to disperse. If, however, I should be killed, after inflicting death upon their king, appoint a man from among you who unites both courage and experience, and may command you in this emergency, and follow up the success. If you attend to my instructions, we are sure of the victory.”
Peddler
Drawing of J. Seymour
When Ṭāriq had thus addressed his Soldiers, and exhorted them to fight with courage, and to face the dangers of war with a stout heart,—when he had thus recommended them to make a simultaneous attack upon Roderic’s men, and promised them abundant reward if they routed their enemies,—their countenances were suddenly expanded with joy, their hopes were strengthened, the gales of victory began to blow on their side, and they all unanimously answered him— “We are ready to follow thee, O Ṭāriq! we shall all, to one man, stand by thee, and fight for thee; nor could we avoid it were we otherwise disposed-victory is our only hope of salvation.”
Campamento Omeya (Juan Navarro Lorente) http://www.navarroilustracion.com
After this Ṭāriq mounted his horse, and his men did the same; and they all passed that night in constant watch for fear of the enemy. On the following morning, when day dawned, both armies prepared for battle; each general formed his cavalry and his infantry, and, the signal being given, the armies met with a shock similar to that of two mountains dashing against each other. King Roderic came borne on a throne, and having over his head an awning of variegated silk to guard him from the rays of the sun, surrounded by warriors cased in bright steel, with fluttering pennons, and a profusion of banners and standards. Ṭāriq’s men were difierently arrayed; their breasts were covered with mail armour, they wore white turbans on their heads, the Arabian bow slung across their backs, their swords suspended to their girdles, and their long spears firmly grasped in their hands. They say that when the two armies were advancing upon each other, and the eyes of Roderic fell upon the men in the first ranks, he was horrorstruck, and was heard to exclaim,—“By the faith of the Messiah! These are the very men I saw painted on the scroll found in the mansion of science at Toledo,” and from that moment fear entered his heart; and when Ṭāriq perceived Roderic he said to his followers, “This is the King of the Christians,” and he charged with his men, the warriors who surrounded Roderic being on all sides scattered and dispersed; seeing which, Ṭāriq plunged into the ranks of the enemy until he reached the king, and wounded him with his sword on the head and killed him on his throne; and when Roderic’s men saw their king fall and his body guard dispersed, the rout became general and victory remained to the Moslems. The rout of the Christians was complete, for instead of rallying on one spot they fled in all directions, and, their panic being communicated to their countrymen, cities opened their gates, and castles surrendered without resistance.
The preceding account we have borrowed from a writer of great note, but we deem it necessary to warn the readers that the assertion that Roderic died by the hands of Ṭāriq has been contradicted by several historians, since his body, although diligently sought on the field of battle, could nowhere be found. We shall proceed to recount in detail that memorable battle, when Almighty God was pleased to put King Roderic’s army to flight, and grant the Moslems a most complete victory. Several authors who have described at large this famous engagement state that Ṭāriq encamped near Roderic, towards the middle of the month of Ramadhān of the year ninety-two (Sept. A.D. 711), and although there is some difierence as to the dates, all agree that the battle was fought on the banks of the Wādaleke (Guadalete), in the district of Shidhūnah. They say also that while both armies were encamped in front of each other, the barbarian king, wishing to ascertain the exact amount of Ṭāriq’s forces, sent one of his men, whose valour and strength he knew, and in whose fidelity he placed unbounded confidence, with instructions to penetrate into Ṭāriq’s camp and bring him an account of their number, arms, accoutrements, and vessels. The Christian proceeded to execute his commission, and reached a small elevation whence he had a commanding view of the whole camp. However, he had not remained long in his place of observation before he was discovered by some Moslems, who pursued him, but the Christian fled before them and escaped through the switness of his horse. Arrived at the Christian camp he addressed Roderic in the following words. “These people, O King! are the same thou sawest painted on the scroll of the enchanted palace. Beware of them! for the greatest part of them have bound themselves by oath to reach thee or die in the attempt; they have set fire to their vessels, to destroy their last hope of escape; they are encamped along the sea shore, determined to die or to vanquish, for they know well that there is not in this country a place whither they can fly.”
King Roderic
Painting of Mariano de la Roca y Delgado, 1853
On hearing this account King Roderic was much disheartened, and he trembled with fear. However, the two armies engaged near the lake or gulf; they fought resolutely on both sides till the right and lefi wings of Roderic’s army, under the command of the sons of Wittiza, gave way. The centre, in which Roderic was, still held firm for awhile, and made the fate of the battle uncertain for some time; they fled at last, and Roderic before them. From that moment the rout became general, and the Moslems followed with ardour the pursuit of the scattered bands, inflicting death wherever they went. Roderic disappeared in the midst of the battle, and no certain intelligence was afterwards received of him; it is true that some Moslems found his favourite steed, a milk-white horse, bearing a saddle of gold sparkling with rubies, plunged in the mud of the river, as also one of his sandals, adorned with rubies and emeralds, but the other was never found; nor was Roderic, although diligently searched for, ever discovered either dead or alive, a circumstance which led the Moslems to believe that he perished in the stream; indeed there are not wanting authors who give it as certain that he died in this manner, and that, while trying to cross the stream, the weight of his armour prevented him from struggling against the current, and he was drowned; but God only knows what became of him.
According to Ar-rāzi, the contest began on a Sunday, two days before the end of Ramadhān, and continued till Sunday, the fifth of Shawāl, namely, eight whole days, at the end of which God Almighty was pleased to put the idolaters to flight and grant the victory to the Moslems; and he adds, that so great was the number of the Goths who perished in the battle, that for a long time after the victory the bones of the slain were to be seen covering the field of action.
Receiving the Favorite (Picture of Francisco Beda)
They say also that the spoil found by the Moslems in the camp of the Christians surpassed all computation, for the princes and great men of the Goths who had fallen were distinguished by the rings of gold they wore on their fingers, those of an inferior class by similar ornaments of silver, while those of the slaves were made of brass. Ṭāriq collected all the spoil and divided it into five shares or portions, when, after deducting one-fifth, he distributed the rest amongst nine thousand Moslems, besides the slaves and followers. When the people on the other side of the straits heard of this success of Ṭāriq, and of the plentiful spoils he had acquired, they flocked to him from all quarters, and crossed the sea on every vessel or bark they could lay hold of. Ṭāriq’s army being so considerably reinforced, the Christians were obliged to shut themselves up in their castles and fortresses, and, quitting the flat country, betake themselves to their mountains. Ṭāriq first marched against Sidonia, which he besieged and took by force after the garrison had defended it some time. In this city Ṭāriq found considerable spoil. From Sidonia he proceeded to Moror, whence he turned towards Carmona, and, passing by a fountain which afterwards received his name, he invested that city, which surrendered to him immediately, the inhabitants agreeing to pay tribute. He next encamped before Exija, and besieged it. The inhabitants being numerous and brave, and having with them some remnants of Roderids army, made at first a desperate defence; but after a severe battle, in which a great many Moslems were killed or wounded, it pleased Almighty God to grant them victory, and the idolaters were put to rout and dispersed. No battle was afterwards fought in which the Moslems had so much to suffer, for the Christians defended themselves with the utmost vigour and resolution, and great was the havoc which they made in the ranks of the faithful. However, the Almighty permitted that Ṭāriq should notice the governor, a crafty man, much experienced in battle, leave the town and take, without attendants, the road to the river for the purpose of bathing. Ṭāriq did not know who he was, but, judging by his arms and his steed, he thought he might be some person of distinction. No sooner was he aware of it, than, impelled by his adventurous humour, he took the same direction, repaired to the river, feigned a purpose similar to that of the barbarian, and, jumping into the water, made him his prisoner; he then conducted him to his camp, where the barbarian discovered himself, and said he was the govemor of the city, upon which the Arab general granted him peace on the usual terms of paying tribute, and dismissed him free to return to the city, where, as soon as he was returned, he fulfilled his word by surrendering it to the Arabs.
In the meanwhile God filled with terror and alarm the hearts of the idolaters, and their consternation was greatly increased when they saw Ṭāriq penetrate far into their country; for, as we have said elsewhere, they were under a belief that his object in the attack was only to gain spoil and then return to his country. When, therefore, they saw Ṭāriq advance to further conquests they were seized with despair, and, abandoning the flat country, fled to the mountains, or betook themselves to their strong castles; a few only of the principal people repaired to the capital, Toledo, with the intention of holding out resistance within its walls. It is said that Ṭāriq, too, endeavoured to increase the terror of the Christians by means of the following stratagem :—he directed his men to cook the flesh of the slain in presence of the Gothic captives in his camp, and when the flesh had thus been cooked in large copper vessels he ordered it to be cut up, as if it were to be distributed to his men for their meals; he alter this allowed some of the captives to escape, that they might report to their countrymen what they had seen. And thus the stratagem produced the desired effect, since the report of the fugitives contributed in no small degree to increase the panic of the infidels. After this they say that Ilyān addressed Ṭāriq in the following words:—“Since thy enemies are panic-struck, and their armies dispersed, proceed to their capital, and destroy them before they have time to collect their forces again. Take expert guides from among my people; divide thy army into bodies, and send them to different parts of the country, and, if thou follow my advice, thou wilt thyself take a division of it and march towards Toledo, where their great men are by this time assembled to deliberate upon their affairs, and unite under a chief of their choosing.' Ṭāriq assented immediately to the advice given by llyān, but, before leaving Ezija, he dispatched Mugheyth Ar-rūmí (the Greek), a freedman of the Sultān Al-walíd, son of ‘Abdu-l-malek, with seven hundred horses; for the Moslems by this time were all, without exception, mounted on horses taken from the barbarians, and had even some remaining.
Praying before the battle
Picture of Domingo Morelli
Mugheyth’s instructions were to attack Cordova, one of their principal cities. Ṭāriq sent another division of his army against Malaga, and a third against Gharnattā, the town of Al-bírah (Elvira), while he himself, at the head of the main body, hastened towards Toledo by way of Jaen: some authors pretend that Ṭāriq himself went to Cordova, and not Mugheyth, but the former account is the most certain. However, those who follow the first opinion relate the affair in the following manner. They say that Mugheyth’s army, having arrived close to Cordova, encamped in a forest of lofty pines on the bank of the river of Shakandah. Having soon after his arrival at the spot sent out his scouts to gain if possible a knowledge of the country, these soon returned with a shepherd, who, being interrogated about Cordova, informed Mugheyth that the principal people of the city had quitted it and gone to Toledo, but that a governor had been left behind with a garríson of four hundred horsemen, besides the invalids and old soldiers. The Shepherd being further questioned respecting the walls of the city said that they were strong and high, but that there was a breach in them, which he described. Accordingly, no sooner were the Moslems enveloped in the shadows of night than they set off towards the city, and approached its walls, where God Almighty opened to them the means of success, by sending a providential fall of hail, which prevented the stepping of the horses from being heard. The Moslems proceeded gently and unnoticed till they arrived on the banks of the river, which they crossed, finding themselves then at a distance of only thirty cubits, or perhaps less, from the walls. Owing to the squalls of rain, and the cold of the night, the sentries, neglecting their duties, were not on the walls keeping guard, a circumstance which allowed the Moslems to arrive unheard and unmolested at the foot of the battlements; they then attempted to scale the walls, but failed in their attempt by not finding a place to fix the ladders. In this difficulty they returned to the shepherd, and asked him to lead them to the breach he had mentioned; this the man did, but it was also found upon trial not to be of easy ascent. However, this was after some time obtained by means of a fig tree, growing close to the walls, the branches of which afforded the means of ascending. One of their strongest men mounted the tree, whence he succeeded in gaining the top of the breach. Mugheyth then unfolded his turban, and gave one end of it to the man, who by means of it succeeded in helping others on until a considerable number of Moslems gained the summit of the wall. Mugheyth, who remained on horseback at the foot of the battlements, then commanded the assailant party to rush upon the guard within the city. This order was quickly obeyed by the Moslems, who surprised and killed many of the garrison, and, breaking open the gate, let in Mugheyth and the rest of his men, who soon got possession of the city. This being done, Mugheyth, with his guides, hastened towards the palace of the governor, who, having received intelligence of the entry of the Moslems, fled with his guards, four hundred in number, and betook himself to a church situated at the west of the city, and fortified himself in it. As water was conveyed under ground to this church from a spring at the foot of a neighbouring mountain, the besieged defended themselves some time against Mugheyth, who nevertheless ruled in the city and its environs. The same authors, namely, those who pretend that Ṭāriq was not present at the taking of Cordova, and that this exploit was achieved singly by Mugheyth, state that this latter general, after writing to Ṭāriq to apprise him of his victory, continued to besiege the Christians shut up in the church. After three months of siege, seeing that he could not reduce them, Mugheyth began to grow impatient and melancholy, and thought of devising some stratagem that might make him master of the fortress. He then called before him one of his black slaves, whose name was Kabah, a man of tried courage and fortitude, and directed him to hide himself at night in a garden covered with trees that lay close to the church, to try if he could not by chance lay hold of some barbarian, who might inform him of the state of the garrison. The black man did as he was ordered, but being a stupid fellow he soon committed himself; for as it was then the season for the trees to bear fruit, and the place was covered with them, he mounted one in order to gather some fruit, and eat of it. While he was thus perched in the tree he was discovered by the people of the church, who, coming to spot, made him get down, and having secured him took him prisoner inside. Great was the fright, and at the same time the astonishment, which the sight of the black man caused to the Christians, for they had never seen a man of his colour before; they surrounded him on every side, they gazed at him with astonishment, and thinking he was painted or dyed with some substance that made him look black, they rushed along, he in the midst of them, towards the subterranean conduit by means of which the garriscn was supplied with water; and there they began washing and scraping him with water and a hard brush till the black man, unable to endure the operation any longer, begged them to desist, and explained to them that he was a human creature like themselves; which being understood by them they left off washing him, although they still continued to stare at him as a thing they had never seen before.
Painting of Alberto Pasini
However, after seven days’ imprisonment, during which the Christians never ceased coming round him and looking at him, the Almighty permitted that one night this black man should effect his escape, and arrive safe at the camp of the Amír Mugheyth, to whom he related his adventures, informing him at the same time of the result of his observations, as well as of the direction of the subterranean conduit which supplied the garrison with water. Immediately after Mugheyth summoned before him some expert people, who locked for the conduit in the place pointed out by the black man, and, having found it, succeeded in stopping it; the church was from that moment deprived of water, and its garrison doomed to death. Notwithstanding this loss, and that the besieged had no hopes of deliverance, they were so obstinate that when safety was offered to them upon condition either of embracing the Mohammedan religion, or paying tribute, they refused to surrender, and the church being set on fire they all perished in the flames. This was the cause of the spot being called ever since Kenísatu-l-harakí (the church of the burning), as likewise of the great veneration in which it has always been held by the Christians, on account of the courage and endurance displayed in the cause of their religion by the people who died in it. Their commander, however, did not share their fate, for, when he perceived that the case was desperate, and saw that he and his followers were doomed to certain death, he abandoned his comrades to their fate and escaped towards Toledo. But Mugheyth, being informed of it, galloped off immediately in pursuit of him, and overtook him near the village of Talavera. They say that the barbarian rode a black steed, a noble and swit animal, and that when he saw Mugheyth close at his heels he was terrified and spurred his horse, but the beast gave a start and threw him down. When Mugheyth came up he found him stunned by the fall and lying on his shield as if he were dead, seeing which he took possession of his arms and made him prisoner. This feat of arms of Mugheyth is differently related by the historians. They all agree, it is true, in the taking of the church after a considerable resistance, and the flight and capture of the governor, but some relate this event as having happened before, not after, the reduction of the fortified church, and say that after taking the governor prisoner Mugheyth invested the building where the Christians had taken refuge, and, having reduced it, put every one of them to the sword: the same historians asserting that the church was called ever since Kenísatu-l-asraí (the church of the captives). Be this as it may, certain it is that Mugheyth made the governor of Cordova prisoner, and spared his life with the intention of presenting him to the Khalif Al-walíd on his return to the East, this Christian being the only captive of the royal blood of the Goths taken at the time of the conquest, the rest having either surrendered on terms which secured them their liberty or escaped to Galicia. However, as we shall presently see, Mugheyth was not able to accomplish his purpose, for some time afterwards a dispute having arisen between him and Mūsā as to whose province it was to present the royal captive to the Khalif, the latter, seeing that he could not prevail upon Mugheyth to relinquish his prize, slew the Gothic slave in the very presence of his master. After the taking of Cordova, Mugheyth assembled all the Jews in the city and left them in charge of it, trusting them in preference to the Christians, on account of their hatred and animosity towards the latter. He then fixed his abode in the palace, and left the rest of the town to be inhabited by the Moslems. In the meanwhile the forces that proceeded against Malaga took possession of that town, the barbarians flying for refuge to the neighbouring mountains. After this they joined the army dispatched to Elvira, and laying siege to its city, Gharnāttah, took it by storm. The citadel of this latter place they intrusted to the care of the Jews, and this practice became almost general in the succeeding years; for whenever the Moslems conquered a town, it was left in custody of the Jews, with only a few Moslems, the rest of the army proceeding to new conquests, and where Jews were deficient a proportionally greater body of Moslems was left in charge. This plan was equally adopted with regard to the district of Rayah, to which Malaga belonged.
After the subjection of these two cities, the army proceeded on to Tudmír, a country so called after its king (Theodomir), and the citadel of which was Ouriwwélah (Orihuela), a place renowned for its strength. This King Tudmír (Theodomir) was a man of great experience and judgment, who for a length of time defended his states valiantly. But at last, having ventured a battle in the open country , he was completely defeated, and most of his men slain, himself and a few followers only succeeding in gaining Orihuela. When safe inside the town, he ordered the women to let their hair loose, to arm themselves with bows, and to appear on the walls as if they were so many warriors prepared for battle, he himself, with his scanty followers, standing in front, with a view to deceive the Moslems with regard to the real strength of the garrison. In this stratagem he, succeeded, for the Moslems, overating his forces by the numbers they saw on the walls, offered him peace, and Theodomir, feigning to accept of it, repaired in disguise to the camp of the Moslems; and there, as if he were a deputy from his own people, he first treated for the security of the inhabitants, and afterwards for his own. When he had brought the Moslems to grant him the terms which he wished for, he made himself known to them, giving as an excuse for his stratagem the great love he had for his subjects, and his ardent wish of obtaining for them a favourable capitulation. He then guided them into the town, according to the treaty agreed upon, but when the Moslems saw that there were in it only women and children, they were very much ashamed of themselves, and mortified at having been deceived. They, however, observed faithfully the terms of the treaty, as it was their custom to do on every occasion; so that the district of Tudmír, by the artífice of its king, was freed from the invasions of the Moslems, and the whole of its towns and villages were comprised in the same capitulation.
Several favourable incursions by the Arabs strengthened Mūsā Ibn Nusayr in his intention of invading Andalus; to this effect he called a freed slave of his, to whom he had on different occasions intrusted important commands in his armies, and whose name was Ṭāriq Ibn Ziyād Ibn ’Abdillah, a native of Hamadān, in Persia, although some pretend that he was not a free-man of Mūsā Ibn Nusayr, but a free-born man of the tribe of Sadf, while others make him a mauli of Lahm. It is even asserted that some of his posterity who lived in Andalus rejected with indignation the supposition of their ancestor having ever been a liberated slave of Mūsā Ibn Nusayr. Some authors, and they are the greatest number, say that he was a Berber, but, as we intend to form a separate article about Ṭāriq, we shall leave the discussion of this and other points for another place, confining ourselves at present to the relation of the historical events as we find them recorded by the best Andalusian writers. To this Ṭāriq, therefore, whether a liberated slave of Mūsā, or a freeman of the tribe of Sadf, the Arabian govemor of Africa committed the important trust of conquering the kingdom of Andalus, for which end he gave him the command of an army of seven thousand men, chiefly Berbers and slaves, very few only being genuine Arabs.
Fariq Ibn Ziyad Ibn ’Abdillah,
Painting of Theodor Hoseman
To accompany and guide Ṭāriq in this expedition Mūsā again sent Ilyān, who provided four vessels from the ports under his command, the only places on the coast where vessels were at that time built. Everything being got ready, a division of the army crossed that arm of the sea which divides Andalus from Africa, and landed with Ṭāriq at the foot of the mountain which afterwards received his name, on a Saturday, in the month of Sha’bān of the year ninety-two (July, 711), answering to the month of Agosht (August), and the four vessels were sent back, and crossed and recrossed until the rest of Ṭāriq’s men were safely put on shore. It is otherwise said that Ṭāriq landed on the twenty-fourth of Rejeb (l9th June, 71l), in the same year. Another account makes the number of men embarked on this occasion amount to twelve thousand, all but sixteen, a number consisting almost entirely of Berbers, there being but few Arabs amongst them; but the same writer agrees that Ilyān transported this force at various times to the coast of Andalus in merchant vessels, (whence collected it is not known,) and that Ṭāriq was the last man on board.
Image of Tariq Ibn Ziyad , the General who first crossed into Spain,
the place is named "Gibraltar"
Honorary currency Note in his (Tarik) name
Various historians have recorded two circumstances concerning Ṭāriq’s passage and his landing on the coast of Andalus, which we consider worthy of being transcribed. They say that while he was sailing across that arm of the sea which separates Africa from Andalus he saw in a dream the prophet Mohammed, surrounded by Arabs of the Muhajirín and Anssār, who with unsheathed swords and bended bows stood close by him, and that he heard the Prophet say, “Take“ courage, O Ṭāriq! and accomplish what thou art destined to perform;” and that having looked round him he saw the messenger of God, (upon whom be the peace and salutation of his Lord!) who with his companions was entering Andalus. Ṭāriq then awoke from his sleep, and, delighted with this good omen, hastened to communicate the miraculous circumstance to his followers, who were much pleased and strengthened. Ṭāriq himself was so much struck by the apparition that from that moment he never doubted of victory. The same writers have preserved another anecdote, which sufliciently proves the mediation of the Almighty in permitting that the conquest of Andalus should be achieved by Ṭāriq. Directly after his landing on the rock Mūsā’s freedman brought his forces upon the plain, and began to overrun and lay waste the neighbouring country. While he was thus employed, an old woman from Algesiras presented herself to him, and among other things told him what follows: “ Thou“ must know, O stranger! that I had once a husband who had the knowledge of future events; and I have repeatedly heard him say to the people of this country that a foreign general would come to this island and subject it to his arms. He described him to me as a man of prominent forehead, and such, I see, is thine; he told me also that the individual designated by the prophecy would have a black mole covered with hair on his left shoulder. Now, if thou hast such a mark on thy body, thou art undoubtedly the person intended.” When Ṭāriq heard the old woman’s reasoning, he immediately laid his shoulder hare, and the mark being found, as predicted, upon the let one, both he and his companions were filled with delight at the good omen.
Walis (Governors) of Al-Andalus
711-714 Musa ibn Nusary
714-716 Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa
716 Ayyub ibn Habib al-Lajmi
716-719 al-Hurr ibn al-Rahman al-Thaqafi
719-721 As-Samh ibn Malik
721 Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-Gafiqi
721-726 Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi
726-729 Yahya ibn Salama al-Kalbi
729 Hudayfa ibn al-Ahwas al-Qaysi
729-730 Utman ibn Abu Nisa al-Jathami
730-731 al-Haytham ibn Ubayd al-Kilabi
731 Muhammad ibn Abd Allah al-Ashshai
732-732 Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah al-gafiqi
732-734 Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan al-Fihri
734-741 Ubaq ibn al-Hashshaash al-Saluli
741 Abd al-Malik ibn Qatan al-Fihri
741-743 Balsh ibn Bisr al-Qushayri
742-743 Tha´laba ibn Salama al-Amili
743-745 Abu al-Jattar al-Husam ibn Darar al-Kalbi
745-746 Tawaba ibn Salama al-Gudami
746-756 Yusuf ibn al-Rahman al-Fihri
Ibnu Hayyān’s account does not materially differ from those of the historians from whom we have quoted. He agrrees in saying that Ilyān, Lord of Ceuta, incited Mūsā Ibn Nusayr to make the conquest of Andalus; and that this he did out of revenge, and moved by the personal enmity and hatred he had conceived against Roderic. He makes Ṭāriq’s army amount only to seven thousand, mostly Berbers, which, he says, crossed in four vessels provided by Ilyān. According to his account Ṭāriq landed on a Saturday, in the month of Sha’bān of the year ninety- two, and the vessels that brought him and his men on shore were immediately sent back to Africa, and never ceased going backwards and forwards until the whole of the army was safely landed on the shores of Andalus. On the other side, Ibnu Khaldūn reckons the army under the orders of Ṭāriq at three hundred Arabs, and ten thousand Berbers. He says that before starting on his expedition Ṭāriq divided his army into two corps, he himself taking the command of one, and placing the other under the immediate orders of Tarif An-naja’í. Ṭāriq, with his men, landed at the foot of the rock now called Jebalu-l-fatah (the mountain of the entrance), and which then received his name, and was called Jebal-Ṭāriq (the mountain of Ṭāriq); while his companion Taríf landed on the island afterwards called after him Jezírah-Taríf (the island of Taríf). In order to provide for the security of their respective armies, both generals selected, soon after their landing, a good encampment, which they surrounded with walls and trenches, for no sooner had the news of their landing spread than the armies of the Goths began to march against them from all quarters. The precise date of Ṭāriq’s invasion has been differently stated. Some historians, as Ibnu Khaldūn, content themselves with giving the year, viz., ninety-two (beginning 28th October, 710); others have fixed the month and the day in which this memorable event is supposed to have taken place. Ibnu-l-khattíb places it on Monday, five days before the end of Rejeb (25th Rejeb) of the year ninety-two (20th June, 711); Ibnu Hayyān on a Saturday of the month of Sha’bān: others say on the twenty-fourth of Rejeb; Adh-dhobí on the eighth day of the same month. There are not wanting authors who place it at the beginning of the year ninety-three; but those who fix it in ninety-two are most in number. God only knows the truth of the case. But, to continue our narrative, no sooner did Ṭāriq set his foot in Andalus than he was attacked by a Goth named Tudmír (Theodomir), to whom Roderic had intrusted the defence of that frontier. Theodomir, who is the same general who afterwards gave his name to a province of Andalus, called Belād Tuddmír (the country of Theodomir), having tried, although in vain,to stop the impetuous career of Ṭāriq’s men, dispatched immediately a messenger to his master, apprising him how Ṭāriq and his followers had landed in Andalus. He also wrote him a letter, thus conceived:— “This our land has been invaded by people whose name, country, and origin are unknown to me. I cannot even tell thee whence they came,-whether they fell from the skies, or sprang from the earth.”
When this news reached Roderic, who was then in the country of the Bashkans (Basques), making war in the territory of Banbilónah (Pamplona), where serious disturbances had occurred, he guessed directly that the blow came from Ilyān. Sensible; however, of the importance of this attack made upon his dominions, he left what he had in hand, and, moving towards the south with the whole of his powerful army, arrived in Cordova, which is placed in the centre of Andalus. There he took up his abode in the royal castle, which the Arabs called after him Roderic’s Castle. In this palace Roderic took up his residence for a few days, to await the arrival of the numerous troops which he had summoned from the different provinces of his kingdom. They say that while he was staying in Cordova he wrote to the sons of Wittiza to come and join him against the common enemy; for although it is true, as we have already related, that Roderic had usurped the throne of their father and persecuted the sons, yet he had spared their lives;—since these two sons of Wittiza are the same who, when Ṭāriq attacked the forces of King Roderic on the plains of Guadalete, near the sea, turned back and deserted their ranks, owing to a promise made them by Ṭāriq to restore them to the throne of their father if they helped him against Roderic. However, when Roderic arrived in Cordova, the sons of Wittiza were busily engaged in some distant province collecting troops to march against the invaders, and he wrote to them to come and join him with their forces, in order to march together against the Arabs; and, cautioning them against the inconvenience and danger of private feuds at that moment, engaged them to join him and attack the Arabs in one mass.
King Don Rodrigo haranguing his troops at the Battle of Guadalete
Painting of Bernardo Blanco y Pérez, 1871
The sons of Wittiza readily agreed to Roderic’s proposition, and collecting all their forces came to meet him, and encamped not far from the village of Shakandah, on the opposite side of the river, and on the south of the palace of Cordova. There they remained for some time, not daring to enter the capital or to trust Roderic, until at last, having ascertained the truth of the preparations, and seeing the army march out of the city and him with it, they entered Cordova, united their forces to his, and marched with him against the enemy, although, as will be seen presently, they were already planning the treachery which they afterwards committed. Others say that the sons of Wittiza did not obey the summons sent them by the usurper Roderic; on the contrary, that they joined Ṭāriq with all their forces: but which of these reports is the true one God only knows. However, it seems to have been ascertained that all the princes of the Goths came to join Roderic in this expedition, although it is equally true that he was deserted by some of his noblemen on the field of battle. But much obscurity prevails in the writings of the historians who have recorded the events of those early times. Even the name of the Gothic monarch at the time of Ṭāriq’s invasion has been spelt in different ways, for we find it written thus,- Rudheric, and Ludheric; although the latter is more commonly used. It is also stated that he was a descendant from Isbahān (Hispan); but this is contrary to the accounts of Ibnu Hayyān and others, who say that he was not of royal blood.
The Battle of Guadalete
Painting of Salvador Martínez Cubells (1845–1914)
When Ṭāriq received the news of the approach of Roderic’s army, which is said to have amounted to nearly one hundred thousand men, provided with all kinds of weapons and military stores, he wrote to Mūsā for assistance, saying that he had taken Algesiras, a port of Andalus, thus becoming by its possession the master of the passage into that country; that he had subdued its districts as far as the bay; but that Roderic was now advancing against him with a force which it was not in his power to resist, except it was God Almighty’s will that it should be so. Mūsā, who since Ṭāriq’s departure for this expedition had been employed in building ships, and had by this time collected a great many, sent by them a reinforcement of five thousand Moslems, which, added to the seven thousand of the first expedition, made the whole forces amount to twelve thousand men, eager for plunder and anxious for battle. Ilyān, Lord of Ceuta, who had become a tributary of the Moslems, was also sent with his army and the people of his states to accompany this expedition, and to guide it through the passes in the country, and gather intelligence for them. In the meanwhile Roderic was drawing nearer to the Moslems, with all the forces of the barbarians, their lords, their knights, and their bishops; but the hearts of the great people of the kingdom being against him, they used to see each other frequently, and in their private conversations they uttered their sentiments about Roderic in the following manner: “This wretch has by force taken possession of the throne to which he is not justly entitled, for not only he does not belong to the royal family, but he was once one of our meanest menials; we do not know how far he may carry his wicked intentions against us. There is no doubt but that Ṭāriq’s followers do not intend to settle in this country; their only wish is to fill their hands with spoil and then return. Let us then, as soon as the battle is engaged, give way, and leave the usurper alone to fight the strangers, who will soon deliver us from him; and, when they shall be gone, we can place on the throne him who most deserves it.” In these sentiments all agreed, and it was decided that the proposed plan should be put into execution; the two sons of Wittiza, whom Roderic had appointed to the command of the right and left wings of his army, being at the head of the conspiracy, in the hope of gaining the throne of their father. When the armies drew nearer to each other, the princes began to spin the web of their treason; and for this purpose a messenger was sent by them to Ṭāriq, informing him how Roderic, who had been a mere menial and servant to their father, had, after his death, usurped the throne; that the princes had by no means relinquished their rights, and that they implored protection and security for themselves. They offered to desert, and pass over to Ṭāriq with the troops under their command, on condition that the Arab general would, after subduing the whole of Andalus, secure to them all their father’s possessions, amounting to three thousand valuable and chosen farms, the same that received after this the name of Safāyā-l-molūk (the royal portion).
Picture of F. Roubaud
This offer Ṭāriq accepted; and, having agreed to the conditions, on the next day the sons of Wittiza deserted the ranks of the Gothic army in the midst of battle, and passed over to Ṭāriq, this being no doubt one of the principal causes of the conquest. Roderic arrived on the banks of the Guadalete (Wādí-Lek) with a formidable army, which most historians compute at one hundred thousand, although Ibnu Khaldūn makes it amount to forty thousand men only. Roderic brought all his treasures and military stores in carts: he himself came in a litter, placed between two mules, having over his head an awning richly set with pearls, rubies, and emeralds. On the approach of this formidable tempest the Moslems did not lose courage, but prepared to meet their adversary. Ṭāriq assembled his men, comforted them by his words, and after rendering the due praises to the Almighty God, and returning thanks for what had already been accomplished, proceeded to implore his mighty help for the future. He then encouraged the Moslems, and kindled their enthusiasm with the following address.—“ Whether can you fly,—the enemy is in your front, the sea at your back? By Allah! there is no salvation for you but in your courage and perseverances. Consider your situation;—here you are on this island like so many orphans cast upon the world; you will soon be met by a powerful enemy, surrounding you on all sides like the infuriated billows of a tempestuous sea, and sending against you his countless warriors, drowned in steel, and provided with every store and description of arms. What can you oppose to them? You have no other weapons than your swords, no provisions but those that you may snatch from the hands of your enemies; you must therefore attack them immediately, or otherwise your wants will increase, the gales of victory may no longer blow in your favour, and perchance the fear that lurks in the hearts of your enemies may be changed into indomitable courage. Banish all fear from your hearts, trust that victory shall be ours, and that the baibarian king will not be able to withstand the shock of our arms. Here he comes to make us the masters of his cities and castles, and to deliver into our hands his countless treasures; and if you only seize the opportunity now presented, it may perhaps be the means of your becoming the owners of them, besides saving yourselves from certain death. Do not think that I impose upon you a task from which I shrink myself, or that I try to conceal from you the dangers attending this expedition. No: you have certainly a great deal to encounter, but know that if you only suffer for awhile, you will reap in the end an abundant harvest of pleasures and enjoyments. And do not imagine that while I speak to you I mean not to act as I speak, for as my interest in this atfair is greater, so will my behaviour on this occasion surpass yours. You must have heard numerous accounts of this island, you must know how the Grecian maidens, as handsome as Huris, their necks glittering with innumerable pearls and jewels, their bodies clothed with tunics of costly silks sprinkled with gold, are waiting your arrival, reclining on soft couches in the sumptuous palaces of crowned lords and princes. You know well that the Khalif ’Abdu-l-malek Ibnu-l-walíd has chosen you, like so many heroes, from among the brave; you know that the great lords of this island are willing to make you their sons and brethren by marriage, if you only rush on like so many brave men to the fight, and behave like true champions and valiant knights; you know that the recompenses of God await you if you are prepared to uphold his words, and proclaim his religion in this island; and, lastly, that all the spoil shall be yours, and of such Moslems as may be with you. Bear in mind that God Almighty will select, according to this promise, those that distinguish themselves most among you, and grant them due reward, both in this world and in the future; and know likewise that I shall be the first to set you the example, and to put in practice what I recommend you to do; for it is my intention, on the meeting of the two hosts, to attack the Christian tyrant Roderic and kill him with my own hand, if God be pleased. When you see me bearing against him, charge along with me; if I kill him, the Victory is ours; if I am killed before I reach him, do not trouble yourselves about me, but fight as if I were still alive and among you, and follow up my purpose; for the moment they see their king fall, these barbarians are sure to disperse. If, however, I should be killed, after inflicting death upon their king, appoint a man from among you who unites both courage and experience, and may command you in this emergency, and follow up the success. If you attend to my instructions, we are sure of the victory.”
Drawing of J. Seymour
When Ṭāriq had thus addressed his Soldiers, and exhorted them to fight with courage, and to face the dangers of war with a stout heart,—when he had thus recommended them to make a simultaneous attack upon Roderic’s men, and promised them abundant reward if they routed their enemies,—their countenances were suddenly expanded with joy, their hopes were strengthened, the gales of victory began to blow on their side, and they all unanimously answered him— “We are ready to follow thee, O Ṭāriq! we shall all, to one man, stand by thee, and fight for thee; nor could we avoid it were we otherwise disposed-victory is our only hope of salvation.”
Campamento Omeya (Juan Navarro Lorente) http://www.navarroilustracion.com
After this Ṭāriq mounted his horse, and his men did the same; and they all passed that night in constant watch for fear of the enemy. On the following morning, when day dawned, both armies prepared for battle; each general formed his cavalry and his infantry, and, the signal being given, the armies met with a shock similar to that of two mountains dashing against each other. King Roderic came borne on a throne, and having over his head an awning of variegated silk to guard him from the rays of the sun, surrounded by warriors cased in bright steel, with fluttering pennons, and a profusion of banners and standards. Ṭāriq’s men were difierently arrayed; their breasts were covered with mail armour, they wore white turbans on their heads, the Arabian bow slung across their backs, their swords suspended to their girdles, and their long spears firmly grasped in their hands. They say that when the two armies were advancing upon each other, and the eyes of Roderic fell upon the men in the first ranks, he was horrorstruck, and was heard to exclaim,—“By the faith of the Messiah! These are the very men I saw painted on the scroll found in the mansion of science at Toledo,” and from that moment fear entered his heart; and when Ṭāriq perceived Roderic he said to his followers, “This is the King of the Christians,” and he charged with his men, the warriors who surrounded Roderic being on all sides scattered and dispersed; seeing which, Ṭāriq plunged into the ranks of the enemy until he reached the king, and wounded him with his sword on the head and killed him on his throne; and when Roderic’s men saw their king fall and his body guard dispersed, the rout became general and victory remained to the Moslems. The rout of the Christians was complete, for instead of rallying on one spot they fled in all directions, and, their panic being communicated to their countrymen, cities opened their gates, and castles surrendered without resistance.
The preceding account we have borrowed from a writer of great note, but we deem it necessary to warn the readers that the assertion that Roderic died by the hands of Ṭāriq has been contradicted by several historians, since his body, although diligently sought on the field of battle, could nowhere be found. We shall proceed to recount in detail that memorable battle, when Almighty God was pleased to put King Roderic’s army to flight, and grant the Moslems a most complete victory. Several authors who have described at large this famous engagement state that Ṭāriq encamped near Roderic, towards the middle of the month of Ramadhān of the year ninety-two (Sept. A.D. 711), and although there is some difierence as to the dates, all agree that the battle was fought on the banks of the Wādaleke (Guadalete), in the district of Shidhūnah. They say also that while both armies were encamped in front of each other, the barbarian king, wishing to ascertain the exact amount of Ṭāriq’s forces, sent one of his men, whose valour and strength he knew, and in whose fidelity he placed unbounded confidence, with instructions to penetrate into Ṭāriq’s camp and bring him an account of their number, arms, accoutrements, and vessels. The Christian proceeded to execute his commission, and reached a small elevation whence he had a commanding view of the whole camp. However, he had not remained long in his place of observation before he was discovered by some Moslems, who pursued him, but the Christian fled before them and escaped through the switness of his horse. Arrived at the Christian camp he addressed Roderic in the following words. “These people, O King! are the same thou sawest painted on the scroll of the enchanted palace. Beware of them! for the greatest part of them have bound themselves by oath to reach thee or die in the attempt; they have set fire to their vessels, to destroy their last hope of escape; they are encamped along the sea shore, determined to die or to vanquish, for they know well that there is not in this country a place whither they can fly.”
King Roderic
Painting of Mariano de la Roca y Delgado, 1853
According to Ar-rāzi, the contest began on a Sunday, two days before the end of Ramadhān, and continued till Sunday, the fifth of Shawāl, namely, eight whole days, at the end of which God Almighty was pleased to put the idolaters to flight and grant the victory to the Moslems; and he adds, that so great was the number of the Goths who perished in the battle, that for a long time after the victory the bones of the slain were to be seen covering the field of action.
Receiving the Favorite (Picture of Francisco Beda)
They say also that the spoil found by the Moslems in the camp of the Christians surpassed all computation, for the princes and great men of the Goths who had fallen were distinguished by the rings of gold they wore on their fingers, those of an inferior class by similar ornaments of silver, while those of the slaves were made of brass. Ṭāriq collected all the spoil and divided it into five shares or portions, when, after deducting one-fifth, he distributed the rest amongst nine thousand Moslems, besides the slaves and followers. When the people on the other side of the straits heard of this success of Ṭāriq, and of the plentiful spoils he had acquired, they flocked to him from all quarters, and crossed the sea on every vessel or bark they could lay hold of. Ṭāriq’s army being so considerably reinforced, the Christians were obliged to shut themselves up in their castles and fortresses, and, quitting the flat country, betake themselves to their mountains. Ṭāriq first marched against Sidonia, which he besieged and took by force after the garrison had defended it some time. In this city Ṭāriq found considerable spoil. From Sidonia he proceeded to Moror, whence he turned towards Carmona, and, passing by a fountain which afterwards received his name, he invested that city, which surrendered to him immediately, the inhabitants agreeing to pay tribute. He next encamped before Exija, and besieged it. The inhabitants being numerous and brave, and having with them some remnants of Roderids army, made at first a desperate defence; but after a severe battle, in which a great many Moslems were killed or wounded, it pleased Almighty God to grant them victory, and the idolaters were put to rout and dispersed. No battle was afterwards fought in which the Moslems had so much to suffer, for the Christians defended themselves with the utmost vigour and resolution, and great was the havoc which they made in the ranks of the faithful. However, the Almighty permitted that Ṭāriq should notice the governor, a crafty man, much experienced in battle, leave the town and take, without attendants, the road to the river for the purpose of bathing. Ṭāriq did not know who he was, but, judging by his arms and his steed, he thought he might be some person of distinction. No sooner was he aware of it, than, impelled by his adventurous humour, he took the same direction, repaired to the river, feigned a purpose similar to that of the barbarian, and, jumping into the water, made him his prisoner; he then conducted him to his camp, where the barbarian discovered himself, and said he was the govemor of the city, upon which the Arab general granted him peace on the usual terms of paying tribute, and dismissed him free to return to the city, where, as soon as he was returned, he fulfilled his word by surrendering it to the Arabs.
In the meanwhile God filled with terror and alarm the hearts of the idolaters, and their consternation was greatly increased when they saw Ṭāriq penetrate far into their country; for, as we have said elsewhere, they were under a belief that his object in the attack was only to gain spoil and then return to his country. When, therefore, they saw Ṭāriq advance to further conquests they were seized with despair, and, abandoning the flat country, fled to the mountains, or betook themselves to their strong castles; a few only of the principal people repaired to the capital, Toledo, with the intention of holding out resistance within its walls. It is said that Ṭāriq, too, endeavoured to increase the terror of the Christians by means of the following stratagem :—he directed his men to cook the flesh of the slain in presence of the Gothic captives in his camp, and when the flesh had thus been cooked in large copper vessels he ordered it to be cut up, as if it were to be distributed to his men for their meals; he alter this allowed some of the captives to escape, that they might report to their countrymen what they had seen. And thus the stratagem produced the desired effect, since the report of the fugitives contributed in no small degree to increase the panic of the infidels. After this they say that Ilyān addressed Ṭāriq in the following words:—“Since thy enemies are panic-struck, and their armies dispersed, proceed to their capital, and destroy them before they have time to collect their forces again. Take expert guides from among my people; divide thy army into bodies, and send them to different parts of the country, and, if thou follow my advice, thou wilt thyself take a division of it and march towards Toledo, where their great men are by this time assembled to deliberate upon their affairs, and unite under a chief of their choosing.' Ṭāriq assented immediately to the advice given by llyān, but, before leaving Ezija, he dispatched Mugheyth Ar-rūmí (the Greek), a freedman of the Sultān Al-walíd, son of ‘Abdu-l-malek, with seven hundred horses; for the Moslems by this time were all, without exception, mounted on horses taken from the barbarians, and had even some remaining.
Praying before the battle
Picture of Domingo Morelli
Mugheyth’s instructions were to attack Cordova, one of their principal cities. Ṭāriq sent another division of his army against Malaga, and a third against Gharnattā, the town of Al-bírah (Elvira), while he himself, at the head of the main body, hastened towards Toledo by way of Jaen: some authors pretend that Ṭāriq himself went to Cordova, and not Mugheyth, but the former account is the most certain. However, those who follow the first opinion relate the affair in the following manner. They say that Mugheyth’s army, having arrived close to Cordova, encamped in a forest of lofty pines on the bank of the river of Shakandah. Having soon after his arrival at the spot sent out his scouts to gain if possible a knowledge of the country, these soon returned with a shepherd, who, being interrogated about Cordova, informed Mugheyth that the principal people of the city had quitted it and gone to Toledo, but that a governor had been left behind with a garríson of four hundred horsemen, besides the invalids and old soldiers. The Shepherd being further questioned respecting the walls of the city said that they were strong and high, but that there was a breach in them, which he described. Accordingly, no sooner were the Moslems enveloped in the shadows of night than they set off towards the city, and approached its walls, where God Almighty opened to them the means of success, by sending a providential fall of hail, which prevented the stepping of the horses from being heard. The Moslems proceeded gently and unnoticed till they arrived on the banks of the river, which they crossed, finding themselves then at a distance of only thirty cubits, or perhaps less, from the walls. Owing to the squalls of rain, and the cold of the night, the sentries, neglecting their duties, were not on the walls keeping guard, a circumstance which allowed the Moslems to arrive unheard and unmolested at the foot of the battlements; they then attempted to scale the walls, but failed in their attempt by not finding a place to fix the ladders. In this difficulty they returned to the shepherd, and asked him to lead them to the breach he had mentioned; this the man did, but it was also found upon trial not to be of easy ascent. However, this was after some time obtained by means of a fig tree, growing close to the walls, the branches of which afforded the means of ascending. One of their strongest men mounted the tree, whence he succeeded in gaining the top of the breach. Mugheyth then unfolded his turban, and gave one end of it to the man, who by means of it succeeded in helping others on until a considerable number of Moslems gained the summit of the wall. Mugheyth, who remained on horseback at the foot of the battlements, then commanded the assailant party to rush upon the guard within the city. This order was quickly obeyed by the Moslems, who surprised and killed many of the garrison, and, breaking open the gate, let in Mugheyth and the rest of his men, who soon got possession of the city. This being done, Mugheyth, with his guides, hastened towards the palace of the governor, who, having received intelligence of the entry of the Moslems, fled with his guards, four hundred in number, and betook himself to a church situated at the west of the city, and fortified himself in it. As water was conveyed under ground to this church from a spring at the foot of a neighbouring mountain, the besieged defended themselves some time against Mugheyth, who nevertheless ruled in the city and its environs. The same authors, namely, those who pretend that Ṭāriq was not present at the taking of Cordova, and that this exploit was achieved singly by Mugheyth, state that this latter general, after writing to Ṭāriq to apprise him of his victory, continued to besiege the Christians shut up in the church. After three months of siege, seeing that he could not reduce them, Mugheyth began to grow impatient and melancholy, and thought of devising some stratagem that might make him master of the fortress. He then called before him one of his black slaves, whose name was Kabah, a man of tried courage and fortitude, and directed him to hide himself at night in a garden covered with trees that lay close to the church, to try if he could not by chance lay hold of some barbarian, who might inform him of the state of the garrison. The black man did as he was ordered, but being a stupid fellow he soon committed himself; for as it was then the season for the trees to bear fruit, and the place was covered with them, he mounted one in order to gather some fruit, and eat of it. While he was thus perched in the tree he was discovered by the people of the church, who, coming to spot, made him get down, and having secured him took him prisoner inside. Great was the fright, and at the same time the astonishment, which the sight of the black man caused to the Christians, for they had never seen a man of his colour before; they surrounded him on every side, they gazed at him with astonishment, and thinking he was painted or dyed with some substance that made him look black, they rushed along, he in the midst of them, towards the subterranean conduit by means of which the garriscn was supplied with water; and there they began washing and scraping him with water and a hard brush till the black man, unable to endure the operation any longer, begged them to desist, and explained to them that he was a human creature like themselves; which being understood by them they left off washing him, although they still continued to stare at him as a thing they had never seen before.
Painting of Alberto Pasini
However, after seven days’ imprisonment, during which the Christians never ceased coming round him and looking at him, the Almighty permitted that one night this black man should effect his escape, and arrive safe at the camp of the Amír Mugheyth, to whom he related his adventures, informing him at the same time of the result of his observations, as well as of the direction of the subterranean conduit which supplied the garrison with water. Immediately after Mugheyth summoned before him some expert people, who locked for the conduit in the place pointed out by the black man, and, having found it, succeeded in stopping it; the church was from that moment deprived of water, and its garrison doomed to death. Notwithstanding this loss, and that the besieged had no hopes of deliverance, they were so obstinate that when safety was offered to them upon condition either of embracing the Mohammedan religion, or paying tribute, they refused to surrender, and the church being set on fire they all perished in the flames. This was the cause of the spot being called ever since Kenísatu-l-harakí (the church of the burning), as likewise of the great veneration in which it has always been held by the Christians, on account of the courage and endurance displayed in the cause of their religion by the people who died in it. Their commander, however, did not share their fate, for, when he perceived that the case was desperate, and saw that he and his followers were doomed to certain death, he abandoned his comrades to their fate and escaped towards Toledo. But Mugheyth, being informed of it, galloped off immediately in pursuit of him, and overtook him near the village of Talavera. They say that the barbarian rode a black steed, a noble and swit animal, and that when he saw Mugheyth close at his heels he was terrified and spurred his horse, but the beast gave a start and threw him down. When Mugheyth came up he found him stunned by the fall and lying on his shield as if he were dead, seeing which he took possession of his arms and made him prisoner. This feat of arms of Mugheyth is differently related by the historians. They all agree, it is true, in the taking of the church after a considerable resistance, and the flight and capture of the governor, but some relate this event as having happened before, not after, the reduction of the fortified church, and say that after taking the governor prisoner Mugheyth invested the building where the Christians had taken refuge, and, having reduced it, put every one of them to the sword: the same historians asserting that the church was called ever since Kenísatu-l-asraí (the church of the captives). Be this as it may, certain it is that Mugheyth made the governor of Cordova prisoner, and spared his life with the intention of presenting him to the Khalif Al-walíd on his return to the East, this Christian being the only captive of the royal blood of the Goths taken at the time of the conquest, the rest having either surrendered on terms which secured them their liberty or escaped to Galicia. However, as we shall presently see, Mugheyth was not able to accomplish his purpose, for some time afterwards a dispute having arisen between him and Mūsā as to whose province it was to present the royal captive to the Khalif, the latter, seeing that he could not prevail upon Mugheyth to relinquish his prize, slew the Gothic slave in the very presence of his master. After the taking of Cordova, Mugheyth assembled all the Jews in the city and left them in charge of it, trusting them in preference to the Christians, on account of their hatred and animosity towards the latter. He then fixed his abode in the palace, and left the rest of the town to be inhabited by the Moslems. In the meanwhile the forces that proceeded against Malaga took possession of that town, the barbarians flying for refuge to the neighbouring mountains. After this they joined the army dispatched to Elvira, and laying siege to its city, Gharnāttah, took it by storm. The citadel of this latter place they intrusted to the care of the Jews, and this practice became almost general in the succeeding years; for whenever the Moslems conquered a town, it was left in custody of the Jews, with only a few Moslems, the rest of the army proceeding to new conquests, and where Jews were deficient a proportionally greater body of Moslems was left in charge. This plan was equally adopted with regard to the district of Rayah, to which Malaga belonged.
After the subjection of these two cities, the army proceeded on to Tudmír, a country so called after its king (Theodomir), and the citadel of which was Ouriwwélah (Orihuela), a place renowned for its strength. This King Tudmír (Theodomir) was a man of great experience and judgment, who for a length of time defended his states valiantly. But at last, having ventured a battle in the open country , he was completely defeated, and most of his men slain, himself and a few followers only succeeding in gaining Orihuela. When safe inside the town, he ordered the women to let their hair loose, to arm themselves with bows, and to appear on the walls as if they were so many warriors prepared for battle, he himself, with his scanty followers, standing in front, with a view to deceive the Moslems with regard to the real strength of the garrison. In this stratagem he, succeeded, for the Moslems, overating his forces by the numbers they saw on the walls, offered him peace, and Theodomir, feigning to accept of it, repaired in disguise to the camp of the Moslems; and there, as if he were a deputy from his own people, he first treated for the security of the inhabitants, and afterwards for his own. When he had brought the Moslems to grant him the terms which he wished for, he made himself known to them, giving as an excuse for his stratagem the great love he had for his subjects, and his ardent wish of obtaining for them a favourable capitulation. He then guided them into the town, according to the treaty agreed upon, but when the Moslems saw that there were in it only women and children, they were very much ashamed of themselves, and mortified at having been deceived. They, however, observed faithfully the terms of the treaty, as it was their custom to do on every occasion; so that the district of Tudmír, by the artífice of its king, was freed from the invasions of the Moslems, and the whole of its towns and villages were comprised in the same capitulation.
0 comentarios:
Publicar un comentario